METHODS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
FIXING COMMON MISTAKES
REVIEWING A DRAFT
PROOFREADING MARKS AND SYMBOLS
SEE AND SPELL / HOMOPHONES
WORD PROCESSING CAPABILITIES
FACILITATIVE LANGUAGE
PROOFREADING CHECKLIST
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
ORAL READING AND SUB VOCALIZATION
SCOPE STRATEGY
CHECKING PARAGRAPHS
Gallo and Rink (1985) describe six methods of paragraph development:classification,definition,comparison-contrast,compare-contrast definition,process, and description. These strategies help writers develop the ideas in a paragraph through clear thought and organization.
"Classification is the process by which large bodies of information are divided into smaller related groups on the basis of some principle of categorizing" (Gallo & Rink, 1985, p.151). The classification approach is effective for both single-paragraph essays or multipara graph writings. As a rule of thumb, the following information should be included in a classification paragraph.
- provide a topic sentence that identifies the main point of the paragraph
- identify the classes or groups
- define or explain each class
- give examples of each class
- provide a final sentence that summarizes the classes and restates the topic sentence
- Based on their mineral composition and texture, rocks are divided into three types. Rocks that form from melted lava or magma are called igneous rocks. They are often associated with volcanoes or batholiths. Composed primarily of silicate minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and amphibole, igneous rocks form above or below the earth's surface. Examples of igneous rocks are basalt, granite, obsidian, and andesite. The second rock type, metamorphic rocks, forms as a result of high temperatures and/or pressures. This alteration results in the growth of new minerals or the reorientation of minerals. Slate, marble, and gneiss are examples of metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the weathered debris of other rocks. The process involves chemical or mechanical weathering of rocks to form sediments, deposition of the sediments, and cementation of the sediments. Commonly formed in water, sedimentary rocks are often stratified or layered and they may contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks include sandstone, shale, limestone, and conglomerate. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks differ in terms of their composition and texture.
- How many kinds of love are there?
- What are the basic types of running backs in football?
- What are the basic types of movies?
- What are the basic ways to get money?
- What are the basic ways for obtaining knowledge?
Used in single-paragraph or multipara graph essays, the definition approach to paragraph development allows the writer to explain or define meanings of words, terms, types, or qualities. The definition approach is particularly effective if the writer cannot assume that the reader has preexisting knowledge of the subject or if the writer is using the term or idea in novel ways. Gallo and Rink's (1985) tips for the definition method are given below.
- define words or ideas that are widely used and therefore have various or confusing meanings
- for complex words or ideas, reduce the concept to its essential elements or focus on its most significant aspect
- use a question as the topic sentence of the paragraph
- define the word or idea by explaining what or who fits the definition
- define the word or idea by explaining what or who does not fit the definition
- (1) Who were the pioneers? (2) Who were the men who left their homes and went into the wilderness? (3) A man rarely leaves a soft spot and goes deliberately in search of hardship and privation. (4) People become attached to the places they live in; they drive roots. (5) A change of habitat is a painful act of uprooting. (6) A man who has made good and has a standing in his community stays put. (7) The successful businessmen, farmers, and workers usually stayed where they were. (8) Who then left for the wilderness and the unknown? (9) Obviously those who had not made good; men who went broke and never amounted to much; men who though possessed of abilities were too impulsive to stand the daily grind; men who were slaves of their appetites - drunkards, gamblers, and woman-chasers; outcasts - fugitives from justice and ex-jailbirds. (10) There were no doubt some who went in search of health - men suffering with TB, asthma, heart trouble. (11) Finally there was a sprinkling of young and middle-aged men in search of adventure.
- Define some sort of ideal: a human being, a spouse, a teacher, a student, a vacation, or a house.
- Define the successful professional athlete.
- Define families whose income is below the poverty level.
- Define in Hoffer's style one of the following: hard hats, republicans, democrats, liberals, rednecks, etc.
- Define an active member of the Third World in a college.
"In a comparison-contrast paragraph two arguments or sets of facts, or things, or persons are set up side by side and explained or described by showing their differences or their similarities and differences ... . Comparison-contrast is an excellent form in which to state an argument [because] it can lodge both sides of the argument (pro and con) under the same roof ... . Often, too, comparison-contrast works well in developing description. ... The beauty of comparison-contrast is that, in the first place, it gives the writer a ready-made method that is easy to follow and, in the second place, it lends itself well to almost any sort of idea development because the appearance or nature of almost any single thing is sharpened when it is placed alongside its opposite or reverse" (Gallo & Rink, 1985, p. 156-158). Here are some tips for the comparison-contrast approach to paragraph development.
- cover each point for both topics in turn (a strategy called sequencing)
- cover one topic completely before discussing the second topic (a strategy calledchunking)
- it is not always necessary to make the same points for each topic when chunking
- for more comparison-contrast ideas, see Writing a Compare-Contrast Paper
- use cue words to indicate similarities (similarly, likewise) and differences (on the other hand, in contrast, however)
- Computer information may be stored in a number of ways, two of which are primary and secondary memory. Primary memory is internal to the computer, and often consists of chips built into the machine. The most common form of primary memory is RAM, or random access memory, which stores program instructions and data currently being used. Information kept in RAM will be lost if the machine is turned off. Another form of primary memory is ROM, or read only memory. The contents of ROM, like the operating system, are not lost if the power is turned off. Primary memory can be quite large, up to hundreds of megabytes on a personal computer. Secondary memory, on the other hand, is external to the computer, so it is transportable, and usually takes the form of floppy disks and magnetic tape. Secondary memory is different from primary memory in that information is recorded semipermanently and not in RAM or ROM. Secondary memory devices tend to be more limited in storage capacity than primary memory devices.
- Compare and contrast an American-built car and a foreign-built car.
- Compare and contrast your knowledge of some subject with popular misconceptions about the subject, such as the allegedly high cost of school sports and the truth as you know it or the popular ideas about nutrition and the facts you know about them.
- Compare and contrast gossip about a person and the truth as you know it.
- Compare and contrast a stereotype about a group of people and what you know about the group.
Several paragraph development techniques may be combined to make a point in a paragraph. As Gallo and Rink (1985, p. 159) note, "a mixture of comparison-contrast and definition is often quite effective in developing a paragraph of argument." Tips for developing this type of paragraph are listed below.
- start with a topic sentence
- place the concise definition early in the paragraph
- use the sequencing or chunking technique to discuss the similarities and differences
- I think that the white man treated the American Indian very badly, but not monstrously. First, as applied to men, the word monstrous, by definition, means abnormal or freakish, and therefore an unhuman kind of badness. According to what I have learned in history, the white man's treatment of the Indian was traditional and typical of the way any conquering groups treated a defeated native group. When the Aryans from the north conquered the native people of India around 1600 B.C., they enslaved the defeated population (who had a superior culture, by the way) and started the caste system, which imposed artificial inequalities on the conquered people. When the Romans defeated a foreign country, they usually gave the defeated people two choices - enslavement or death. ... Therefore, I believe that the white man's behavior toward the American Indian was traditional and typical of human beings doing unjust, cruel, and terrible things but not typical of monsters. So we don't have to go to the nonhuman, abnormal monsters; the badness of human beings is bad enough, and the white man in America behaved with typically human, not monstrous, badness.
- React to the proposition that baseball or another sport is like ballet. Include a definition of ballet in your paragraph.
- Define a successful person and then compare and contrast the characteristics of successful and unsuccessful people.
- Define a unsuccessful but good person and compare him/her with an unsuccessful bad person.
The process approach to paragraph development is an effective way to describe procedures or step-by-step information. "A process paragraph is a paragraph of instructions, and the order of development should be the orderly steps in which the process is to be carried out, or in which the thing is to be done or made" (Gallo and Rink, 1985, p. 161). Tips for writing a process paragraph are as follows.
- plan out the paragraph with flow charts or another organizational aid
- begin with a topic sentence that identifies the process to be described
- use cue words (such as first, second, next, then, or finally) to signal when a new step is being described
- Time management is a critical skill for students to master in college. Managing one's time is easy if one follows these important steps for developing weekly time planners. First, make a list of all academic assignments due in the upcoming week as well as the social activities for the upcoming week. Then prioritize the list, numbering each item in terms of how important it is. For example, the most important activity should be numbered "1," the next most important task is "2," and so on. The third step involves breaking each task into smaller parts. A research paper assignment, for instance, might be divided into six parts: library research, taking notes from reference materials, organizing ideas, writing a rough draft, proofreading, and writing a final draft. The next step is estimating how much time it will take to complete each task. Step five involves setting aside time in one's schedule to complete each task, starting with the highest priority tasks. The last step is often omitted but is very important. One must monitor or evaluate how well one sticks to the time management planner.
- Write a process paragraph to describe how to throw a party.
- Write a process paragraph to describe how to make a piece of clothing like a dress or shirt.
- Write a process paragraph to describe how to read a book.
- Write a process paragraph to describe how to prepare for a camping trip, a fishing trip, or another kind of trip.
- Write a process paragraph to describe how to hang wallpaper or some other home improvement job.
Description involves thoroughly describing a person, place, or event without offering any judgments. The writer should strive to present a complete, accurate, and interesting description of the subject. Gallo and Rink (1985) state that "although description is simply 'telling it like it is,' it is always your job to interpret the experience and thoughtfully select and describe what is significant, revealing, and interesting about it" (p. 162). Tips for writing effective descriptive paragraphs are listed below.
- a topic sentence may be placed at the beginning or the end of the paragraph
- don't oversimplify the description
- avoid making judgments about the subject ("this is good" or "it was terrible") - just set the scene and let the reader draw his/her own conclusions
- arrange ideas in a simple, natural order
- It began as most parties do. The host scrambled to arrange enough seats for the guests. Despite days of preparation, the hostess worked feverently to assemble the food amidst a kitchen full of boiling pots, beeping timers, and melting ice. The dog barked from its confinement in the bedroom. But despite the initial confusion, things were in order when the guests arrived. The early arrivals, of course, wondered if they had come too soon so they offered to help with the arrangements. Since things were under control by that time, the first guests contributed by dispensing compliments to the host and hostess, helping to soothe their nerves. As more guests arrived, the sound levels in the house increased steadily. Howls of laughter and the chinking of ice in glasses permeated the space. Soon music blared and chairs were hastily tossed aside to make room for a make-shift dance floor. Lamp shades appeared everywhere they were not supposed to be. The singing, dancing, eating, and talking continued for hours. But the chimes of the grandfather clock announced that the time was growing late, and as quickly as they arrived, the guests issued their "Thanks" and said good night. At least the dog was happy to see the party come to a close.
- Write a paragraph to describe your home town.
- Write a paragraph to describe a season of the year.
- Write a paragraph to describe a family member.
- Write a paragraph to describe a holiday or tradition.
- Write a paragraph to describe a sporting event.
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FIXING COMMON MISTAKES
The following proofing suggestions target mistakes commonly made in written assignments (based in part on Madraso 1993). The strategies may be used by individual students proofreading their own papers, or they may be used by students, instructors, or tutors when checking others' papers.
Poor Organization and Overall Strategy
To detect problems with paper structure and organization, read aloud or sub vocalize. Consider what kind of overall organization plan is used - spatial, chronological, or logical. Is the plan appropriate and consistent?
Sentence Structure
Read each sentence individually, asking if the sentence makes sense or not. If the sentence does not make sense, ask why. It may be related to punctuation, word choice, tense, or subject-predicate agreement.
Sentence Fragments
To detect sentence fragments, read the paper backwards sentence by sentence. Don't read word for word, but read whole sentences beginning with the last sentence of the paper. Consider whether or not each sentence makes sense by itself. Sentences that don't make sense should be rewritten or added to the prior or subsequent sentences.
Run-On Sentences
Look for sentences that contain a variety of related or unrelated ideas, that continue for several lines, or that should contain the word and . Break lengthy sentences into smaller ones using and , semicolons, or periods. The method chosen for fixing run-ons depends on content and the desired effect.
Comma Splices
Skim the paper, stopping at each comma. Read the portion of the sentence preceding the comma. If it makes sense by itself, read the words after the comma. If the second part makes sense by itself, use a coordinating conjunction (such as but or although ), period, or semicolon to correct the comma splice.
Normalizations
Proofing for normalizations involves two steps. First, skim the paper for the word of . Revise a sentence if the word preceding of has a verb form. For example, the sentence "I gave an explanation of the event" should be rewritten "I explained the event." Second, skim the paper for verbs to have , to make , and to be . If the nouns that follow these words have verb forms, use that verb instead. For example, "I made a suggestion that we leave" should be rewritten "I suggested that we leave."
Writing in the Passive Voice
Be on the lookout for verbs in the passive voice. To do so, skim the paper, looking for forms of the verb to be and past participles after verbs (past participles often end in -ed or -en). For example, "The criminal was sentenced to prison" is written in the passive voice. In these cases, ask who did the action in the past participle and decide if the sentence should be altered to reflect this. For example, the above sentence should be rewritten "The judge sentenced the criminal to prison." The subject of the sentence should always be the "doer" of the action.
Homophones
Skim the paper for common homophones, or words that sound the same but differ in spelling and meaning. Common homophones are there/their/they're and to/too/two. A more complete list in given in the See and Spell / Homophones section of this page.
Spelling Errors
To detect spelling errors, use the spell checker tool of most word processing programs, or read the paper backwards word for word. Look for known patterns.
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REVIEWING A DRAFT
Reviewing drafts of a paper is more effective and efficient when the following guidelines are used. Ideally, someone other than the author should review the draft in order to obtain critical and more objective feedback. If another reader is unavailable, the author may ask him/herself the following questions in order to review the draft. The approach summarized here is quoted from REFERENCE.
- Introduction
- What does the opening accomplish?
- How does it catch the reader's attention?
- How else might the essay begin?
- Can you suggest some better way of opening?
- Thesis
- Paraphrase the thesis of the essay in the form of a promise: "In this paper I will ... "
- Does the draft fulfill the promise made by the thesis? Why or why not?
- Supporting Points
- List the main points made in the draft, in order of presentation. Then number them in order of interest to you, noting particularly parts that were notinteresting to you or material that seemed unnecessary or added on for no reason. Review the main points one by one.
- Do any need to be explained more fully or less fully?
- Should any be eliminated?
- Are any confusing or boring to you?
- Do any make you want to know more?
- Organization
- What kind of overall organization plan is used - spatial, chronological, or logical?
- Are the points presented in the most useful order?
- What, if anything, might be moved, deleted, or added?
- Can you suggest ways to make connections between paragraphs clearer and easier to follow?
- Paragraphs
- Which paragraphs are clearest and most interesting to read, and why?
- Which ones are well developed, and how are they developed?
- Which paragraphs need further development?
- What kinds of information seem to be missing?
- Sentences
- Number each sentence. Then reread the draft, and choose the three to five sentences you consider the most interesting or the best written - stylistically effective, entertaining, or memorable for some other reason. Then choose the three to five sentences you see as weakest, whether boring, bland, or simply uninspired.
- Are sentences varied in length, in structure, and in their openings?
- Words
- Mark words that are particularly effective - those that draw vivid pictures or provoke strong responses. Then mark words that are confusing or unclear.
- Do any words need to be defined?
- Are verbs active and vivid?
- Tone
- How does the writer come across in the draft - as serious, humorous, satiric, persuasive, passionately committed, highly objective?
- Mark specific places in the draft where the writer's voice comes through most clearly.
- Is the tone appropriate to the topic and the audience?
- Is the tone consistent throughout the essay?
- If not, is there reason for varying the tone?
- Conclusion
- Does the essay conclude in a memorable way, or does it seem to end abruptly or trail off into vagueness?
- If you like the conclusion, tell why.
- How else might the essay end?
- Final Thoughts
- What are the main strengths and weaknesses in the draft?
- What surprised you - and why?
- What was the single most important thing said?
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PROOFREADING MARKS AND SYMBOLS
The table of proofreading marks and symbols will be scanned in the near future. In the meantime, you might try consulting a dictionary, such as The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language .
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SEE AND SPELL / HOMOPHONES
Homophones are words that sound alike but are spelled differently and have different meanings. Spelling these words correctly in a paper or essay can impact profoundly another person's interpretation and understanding of the information. Commonly confused homophones are listed below (most are quoted from Lunenfeld and Lunenfeld, 1992, p. 38-39).
- affect - to influence ("Her speech affected the vote.")
effect - the result ("His blue tie gave just the right effect with the gray suit.") - all right - fine, satisfactory (not: Alrigh )
a lot - quite a bit (not: Alot)
Use less vague words in place of 'all right' and 'a lot' - its - a possessive that does not require an apostrophe ("The dog enjoyed its bone.")
it's - contraction of it is ("It's very hot today.") - than - comparative ("One is bigger than the other.")
then - time, place ("They left then to go to town.") - there - location, place, movement ("The book is there on the table.")
their - a possessive form of they ("This is their book.")
their - plurality ("The twins want their book.")
they're - contraction of they are ("They're going out tonight.") - two - number ("There are two books.")
too - in addition, furthermore, more, also ("The book is too long.")
to - direction, motion, purpose, point approached or reached ("Come to my house.") - your - possessive ("It is your book.")
you're - contraction of you are ("You're an excellent student.") - you / you're - avoid using in a paper when the intent is to refer to anyone other than the reader; use "one" instead ("One should always be good.")
- weather - climate ("The weather was chilly.")
whether - regarding a decision ("Lin considered whether or not to go to the movies.") - colon (:) - used to introduce a list of items ("Examples of sedimentary rocks are: limestone, shale, sandstone, conglomerate, rock salt, and bituminous coal.")
semicolon (;) - separates two complete but related sentences ("Shale and sandstone are clastic sedimentary rocks; this means they are made of cemented sediments.") - and / semicolon - avoid run-on sentences with many ideas hooked together by "and" or semicolon; break long sentences into several short ones instead
- precede - to come before in time or space ("Small tremors preceded the earthquake.")
proceed - to go forward ("After the fire drill, the teacher proceeded with the lecture.") - titles and foreign words - book titles and foreign words should be underlined or italicized; the titles of articles are set off in quotations
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WORD PROCESSING CAPABILITIES
Most word processing programs have several tools helpful in proofing written assignments. Documents keyed into the computer may be checked for spelling errors and grammatical mistakes. In addition, the search command allows one to check for repetitive use of words or phrases, and document-wide changes may be made using the replace command. Remember to save the document before and after running these tools.
Spell Checkers
The spell-checking tool compares the spelling of all words in the document to words listed in the master dictionary. In addition, the user may create a personal dictionary of commonly used words specific to his or her needs. When a word is encountered that is not in either dictionary, the user is given a list of alternative spellings for the word from which he or she may select. Spell checkers work best at finding words spelled almost correctly, as with simple typographical errors. Improperly used homophones are usually not detected by most spell checkers but may be caught by grammar checkers.
Grammar Checkers
This tool signals the user if it encounters repeated words (e.g. "The the dog is big"), mismatched nouns and verbs (e.g. "The dog are brown"), redundant sentence structure (e.g. the last five sentences began with "the"), and other grammatical errors and stylistic problems. The user is given a list of alter- natives for correcting the mistakes. The user can also indicate which of the many grammar rules the computer should check.
Search or Find Command
When writers know they make repeated mistakes in spelling, word use, or grammar, the search/find command may be used to check for incorrect usages. After selecting the command, the writer types in the word, phrase, or punctuation that may be problematic. The computer will scan the document, stopping at and highlighting those items indicated by the user. Common problems that may be checked using the search command are: misuse or overuse of I or you , excess commas,homophones, question marks, or number agreement.
Replace Command
To make document-wide changes, select the replace command. Type in the misspelled word or ungrammatical phrase and then enter the correct spelling or wording. If the computer is instructed to "replace" the items, it will scan the document, stop at and highlight the first item, and ask the user if they want to replace the highlighted item with the corrected one. If the computer is instructed to "replace all" the items, it will scan the document and correct all the errors on its own.
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FACILITATIVE LANGUAGE
A common concern among proofreaders who work with students' papers is how to help the author without contributing ideas, changing the meaning, or making judgments about the content. Facilitative questioning may help the author generate more ideas and clarify existing ones (REFERENCE).
Facilitative language should contain the following components and concepts:
- process
- focus on the writer
- predesignated role as reader
- reaction to the writing as a reader
- objective involvement
- sounding board: mirror
- evoking writer's ideas
- promotion of writer's ideas
- responsibility of the writer for the paper
FACILITATIVE LANGUAGE | NON-FACILITATIVE LANGUAGE |
Describe the reader's reaction and request for more information | Making obvious judgments and contributions |
"What is your idea here?" | "What's the purpose of the paper?" |
"What do you want to say?" | "You should say ... " |
"I get lost here." | "I think ... " |
"I'm confused." | "That's confusing." |
"This sentence tells me ... " - "Is that the right idea?" - "Is that what you mean?" | "I don't like that." |
"What do you want the reader to know in this paragraph?" | "Does this sound better ... " "How does this sound?" |
"How would you make this clear to someone outside of the field | "That doesn't belong here." |
"How do these ideas connect?" "From what you said before, I expected to read ... " | "That doesn't work." |
"What is the other side of the argument" | "That's not what I found." |
"That sounds like a different topic to me." | "We're not going to get into that." |
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PROOFREADING CHECKLIST
The following checklist for proofreading targets the most common mistakes made by writers. The checklist may be used by students, tutors, and instructors when proofing one's own paper or someone else's paper.
Sentence Structure
When it is difficult to decide if a sentence is structured correctly or not, try reading the sentence aloud. Reading repeatedly will enable the reader to "hear" grammatical mistakes or awkwardly phrased passages.
- _____ Do I have run-on sentences?
- _____ Do I have sentence fragments?
- _____ Do I have any tense inconsistencies?
- _____ Do I logically match subject and predicate?
- _____ Do all pronouns clearly refer to one specific noun?
- _____ Are all comparisons complete?
- _____ Do I have subject-verb agreement?
- _____ Do I confuse adjectives with adverbs?
This section is based in part on Jean Hopper, Ohio Wesleyan University, 1992.
- _____ Is the thesis statement clear, limited, and specifically stated?
- _____ Is each major point in a separate paragraph or section?
- _____ Does each paragraph have a topic sentence as a controlling idea?
- _____ Is each paragraph sufficiently developed?
- _____ Is each sentence in a paragraph related to the topic sentence?
- _____ Are transitions between ideas used effectively?
- _____ Is the information presented from a consistent point of view?
- _____ Is there an adequate conclusion?
- _____ Are opinions and viewpoints adequately supported by examples, statistics, and testimony?
Use rhetorical questions sparingly to make them most effective. Avoid using cliches, idioms, slang, contractions, and terms like I and you .
- _____ Do my chosen words suit my meanings?
- _____ Do I overuse any word or phrase?
- _____ Do I avoid starting every sentence with "the"?
- _____ Am I being too wordy?
- _____ Do I have any vague or obvious statements?
Use exclamation points carefully as they tend to remove a serious attitude from the paper. Use colons and semicolons appropriately.
- _____ Periods
- _____ Question marks
- _____ Exclamation marks
- _____ Ellipses
- _____ Commas
- _____ Semicolons
- _____ Colons
- _____ Dashes
- _____ Parantheses
- _____ Brackets
- _____ Apostrophes
- _____ Underlining
- _____ Capitals
- _____ Abbreviations
- _____ Spelling
- _____ Numbers
- _____ Hyphenation
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A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
Ever played the game "20 Questions?" Before handing in a final draft of your essay or paper, ask yourself these twenty-one questions to insure that your work is complete, clear, and convincing. The questions (except 6 and 8) are quoted from REFERENCE.
Conceptual Revision
- Do I have a clear, properly limited, and interesting thesis?If you don't, the explanation will usually be that you have been "covering the subject" rather than making a point. You need to scan your draft for the germ of an idea that can become a new thesis; and you must be ready to discard whole pages of prose that looked more or less relevant to your old, inadequate thesis. The belated discovery of a "real" thesis always requires major rewriting.
- Have I adequately supported my thesis?The support, remember, must be there on the page, not filed away in your head.
- Have I dealt with probable objections to my thesis?The more controversial your thesis, the greater the need to answer objections. The most efficient means of answering them, of course, is to take them into account in the very formulation of your thesis. That is, avoid unnecessary quarrels by making more modest claims than you first intended to.
Organizational Revision
- Is my thesis conspicuous enough?Having taken the trouble to devise a strong thesis, you want to be sure your reader will recognize it in time to follow your reasoning. Is it prominently placed in one of your early paragraphs, and have you left no doubt that it is your thesis? (Caution: once again, you shouldn't confuse a fully developed, "elephantine" thesis statement with a straightforward, unqualified core thesis. Your reader needs to learn what your main idea is; the "although's" and "because's" are the business of the rest of your paper.)
- Do all of my paragraphs help to build the reader's confidence in my thesis?The likelihood of a yes answer increases insofar as you have found a real point to make and outlined the steps needed to make that point credible. Even so, the answer after just one draft may be no. If you did have an idea to pursue, you may have spent much of that draft restating the idea instead of developing and defending it. And you may have digressed, or wandered from the point, in one or two paragraphs. Uproot the offending passages and try to make the whole paper move forward purposefully.
- Does my first paragraph attract the reader's interest?There are several ways to attract attention, including statistics, quotes, anecdotes, and examples. Select an attention-getter that is appropriate for the reader(s).
- Have I provided necessary information where it is needed?Ask whether you have supplied facts and explanations necessary for an understanding of your presentation. If you are analyzing a process, are you sure your reader grasps the fundamentals of that process? If you are interpreting a literary text, can you assume that your reader already knows the plot?
- Does my last paragraph give enough sense of completion?One might include in the conclusion a summary of the main points made in the paper, a final statement linked to the attention-getter in the introduction, or implications of the research. Avoid introducing new information or opinions not discussed in the body of the paper. Try to leave the reader with something general in the last paragraph.
- If I have quoted long passages, have I kept my own ideas from being submerged?A no answer is appropriate if you see that your quotations are mostly filler, fattening your paper to a required length and remaining largely unanalyzed.
Editorial Revision
- Are my voice and tone consistent and appropriate?Narrowly considered, voice has to do with pronouns. Do you call yourself I or, more distantly, we ? Do you address your reader familiarly as you , lending your paper an informal air? Do you reach for the formal-sounding one when delivering judgments, as in "One must reject such an outlandish suggestion"? These choices help to set the tone , or general quality or feeling, conveyed in your paper. Ask whether your draft has avoided an awkward mixture of effects and whether you have established a degree of intimacy or distance suitable to the occasion.
- Are my paragraphs unified, emphatic, and fully developed?
- Have I made clear and helpful transitions between paragraphs?First-draft prose tends to consist of isolated paragraphs that fill outline categories one by one. Drawing those paragraphs into logical relationship with signal words like however and furthermore is a simple but immensely helpful act of revision.
- Are my sentences pointed and efficient?You can be quite sure that, after one draft, they will need to be made more pointed and efficient. Revise for distinctness of assertion, adequate subordination, matching of like elements, and conciseness.
- Do my sentences show enough variety of structure?That would be a pleasant surprise; when you are struggling to pin down ideas, sentence structure usually gets neglected. Revise to break up monotonous patterns - especially a succession of plain, choppy sentences.
- Is my diction free of cliches, jargon, euphemism, needless abstraction, and mixed metaphor?
- Do all of my words mean what I think they mean?When in doubt, reach for the dictionary.
- Are all of my words correctly spelled?If you keep a list of words you have previously misspelled, you will be alert for them in your draft. In addition, watch out for the most commonly misspelled words, and consult the dictionary whenever you feel unsure.
- Have I kept to standard idiomatic written usage?Rough drafts often contain unidiomatic phrases - expressions that vary slightly but gratingly from the accepted form ( in regards to for in regard to , off of for off , and so on). To catch such phrases, read your draft aloud and try to notice where it departs from normal speech. And look carefully to see whether you have violated any rules of standard written English: subject-verb agreement, pronoun reference, placement of modifiers, and so forth.
- Have I followed correct form for punctuation and other conventions?Watch especially for difficulties with commas and periods, and check to see that you have formed capitals, italics, abbreviations, and numbers in the customary way.
- If I have included other people's words or ideas, have I cited them properly?This is partly an ethical matter, the avoidance of plagiarism. But once you have recognized the need to cite your sources, you still have to check whether your form of citation is consistent and usual.
- Does my title indicate that I have a point to make?
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ORAL READING AND SUB VOCALIZATION
Oral reading and sub vocalization should be done early in the writing process. These strategies, from Madraso (1993), force the reader to read slowly, making it easier to spot mistakes.
Oral Reading
Oral reading involves reading aloud while proofreading. This may be approached in several ways: the writer may read aloud to him/herself, the writer may read into a tape recorder and then listen to the recording while rereading, or another person can read the paper while the writer listens. Oral reading reveals problems in sentence structure, spelling, mechanics, and content.
Subvocalization
When reading aloud is not feasible, such as when taking essay exams, subvocalization is an effective strategy for proofreading. Subvocalization involves reading to oneself without actually making any sounds. To subvocalize, the reader moves his/her lips while reading, or the reader uses his/her finger or pencil to point to each word and punctuation mark while reading.
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SCOPE STRATEGY
The SCOPE strategy targets students' self-proofreading skills in the content areas. SCOPE acts a mnemonic to remind students of those aspects of their writing that must be checked while proofing. It is especially helpful in situations when students cannot seek the help of others in proofing. For example, one important task to which SCOPE may be applied by students is essay exams; students should be encouraged to use the mnemonic as a reminder to check important aspects of their answers before turning in their tests.
- Spelling
- Capitalization
- Order of words
- Punctuation
- Express complete thoughts
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CHECKING PARAGRAPHS
Paragraphs may be evaluated and improved using the following checklist (quoted from REFERENCE).
Topic Sentences
- What is the topic sentence of each paragraph, and is it stated or implied?
- Where in the paragraph does it fall?
- Should it come at some other point?
- Would any paragraph be improved by deleting or adding a topic sentence?
- What is the most general sentence in each paragraph?
- If the most general sentence is not the topic sentence, should it remain or be omitted?
- Which sentences, if any, do not relate in some way to the topic sentence?
- Is there any way to justify their inclusion?
- Is each paragraph organized in a way that is easy for readers to follow?
- By what means are sentences linked in each paragraph?
- Do any more links need to be added?
- Do any of the transitional expressions try to create links that do not really exist between ideas?
- How completely does each paragraph develop its topic sentence?
- What methods of development are used, and are they effective?
- What other methods might be used?
- Does the paragraph need more material?
- How long is each paragraph?
- Are paragraphs varied in length?
- Does any paragraph seem too long [e.g. an entire page] or too short [e.g. one sentence]?
- Is there anything that might be given strong emphasis by a one-sentence paragraph?
- By what means are paragraphs linked together?
- Do any more links need to be added?
- Do any of the transitional expressions try to create links that do not really exist between ideas?
- How does the introductory paragraph catch the interest of the readers?
- How exactly does it open - with a quotation? an anecdote? a question? a strong statement?
- How else might it open?
- How does the last paragraph draw the essay to a conclusion?
- What lasting impression will it leave with readers?
- How exactly does it close- with a question? a quotation? a vivid image? a warning or call to action?
- How else might this essay conclude?
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