Saturday, October 15, 2011
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Friday, October 14, 2011
Tolman
Edward C. Tolman (1886- 1959)
Sign Theory
Latent Learning
Biography
Tolman was an influential early learning theorist who introduced a number of new concepts and vocabulary to the field of learning psychology. Tolman studied engineering at MIT. In 1912 he studied with Gestaltist Koffka. He spent most of his career at the University of California (Berkeley) after earning his Ph.D.at Harvard in 1915. He worked closely with his research students in a dynamic interactive environment and confessed that he got many of his ideas from his students.
Theory
Tolman termed his system of psychology "purposive behaviorism" as it captured one of his fundamental notions that organism produce behavior for some adaptive purpose. He started out as a behaviorist but acquired an interest in Gestalt theories from Kurt Lewin, and adapted some Gestalt concepts into his work. He developed a distaste for Watson's behaviorism because he disliked "mechanistic behaviorism's reductionistic perspectives. He believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman is virtually the only behaviorist who found the Stimulus-Response theoryunacceptable, because reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur. He felt behavior was holistic, purposive, and cognitive. Tolman's views can be summarized by saying that behavior is not a response to a stimulus but is cognitive coping with a pattern of stimuli.
In his Sign Gestalt Theory, he put forth the notion that there are three parts to learning which work together as a gestalt. These are the "significant" or goal of behavior, the "sign" or signal for action, and "means-end relations" which were internal processes and relationships. He believed learning is an accumulation of these sign gestalts, and that they are then configured into cognitive maps. Input about the environment, which is ongoing, also influences behavior in that it causes certain gestalts to be selected or not, in relation to the individuals purpose or goals, and other factors. In this sense, learning is unique to each individual. (see later discussions of schemas and constructivism).
Tolman coined the term "cognitive map", which was an internal perceptual representation of external environmental features and landmarks. He thought that individuals acquire large numbers of cues from the environment and build up expectancies about their permanence or changeable characteristics. By using this internal representation of a physical space they could get to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of environmental features. Short cuts and variable routes are possible with this model. Whereas behaviorists viewed training as a way to build up a certain set of sequenced responses, Tolman thought that training would lead to a tendency to go to a certain place. The subjects would learn where to go, not just how to go.
Tolman was a "centralist". He felt that learning was dominantly a function of the central nervous system, as opposed to "peripheralism", the view of behaviorism.
Tolman also worked on "Latent Learning", defined as learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear. The idea of latent learning was not original to Tolman, but he developed it further.
Tolman also introduced “intervening variables” into the nomenclature of learning psychology. (This was very influential to Hull, who adopted the concept and terminology). In Tolman's system there were three classes of variables.
1. Dependent (behaviors or responses being observed and measured)
2. Independent (2 types were Environmental and Individual variation)
3. Intervening – these are hypothetical constructs rather than physical parameters. They are definable and measurable but not observable. They have functional relationships with both independent and dependent variables. They are internal cognitive processes.
Expectancy Theory – In animal experiments Tolman and his associates trained subjects to learn a maze with a preferred food as a reward. They observed that if they switched to a less preferred reward, the rats displayed disgust. Tolman attributed this to acquisition of expectancies in response to the signs or stimuli of a particular situation. The problem was, he never defined expectancy even though it was a powerful element in his system.
Tolman identified at least six types of learning.
1. Learning by cathexes – connecting or associating basic drives with desired goals with the end result of developing preferences for certain types of food, drink, sex-objects, etc.
2. Equivalence beliefs – sub-goals leading to major ones acquire similar attractiveness as the end goals.
3. Field expectancies – Acquisitions of sets of gestalts (internal maps) enable the individual to route himself based on these internal maps.
4. Field cognition modes – learning is influenced by the ways that perceptions, memories, and inferences function.
5. Drive discrimination – learning to discriminate between competing or more refined drives
6. Motor patterns- learning and refinement of sensory – motor skills.
Tolman wanted to disprove Thorndike's Law of Effect and replace it with his own set of 3 laws.
1. Law of Motivation – learning is propelled by gaining final successes or avoiding final failures. It is these that give purpose to the learning activity.
2. Law of Emphasis – Learning consists of building up patterns and gestalts and then selecting or emphasizing particular responses which emerge that tend to favor getting to the ultimate final success. The organism emphasizes certain behaviors over others because they grant better pleasure or survival value.
3. Law of Disruption – violent stimuli either physical (such as electrical shock) or emotional coming in sequence with the right or wrong responses will tend to disrupt learning.
Summary
Tolman was similar to the behaviorists in his emphasis on objectivity and measurement. He differed in that he did not believe reinforcement was necessary for learning to occur. Problems with his work were that he poorly defined many terms that he used in his fundamental theories, and that is difficult to make predictions from an expectancy point of view because of lack of determining the nature and strength of expectations before hand and when or how expectations may change.
Learning Theory Bibliography
Sign Theory
Latent Learning
Biography
Tolman was an influential early learning theorist who introduced a number of new concepts and vocabulary to the field of learning psychology. Tolman studied engineering at MIT. In 1912 he studied with Gestaltist Koffka. He spent most of his career at the University of California (Berkeley) after earning his Ph.D.at Harvard in 1915. He worked closely with his research students in a dynamic interactive environment and confessed that he got many of his ideas from his students.
Theory
Tolman termed his system of psychology "purposive behaviorism" as it captured one of his fundamental notions that organism produce behavior for some adaptive purpose. He started out as a behaviorist but acquired an interest in Gestalt theories from Kurt Lewin, and adapted some Gestalt concepts into his work. He developed a distaste for Watson's behaviorism because he disliked "mechanistic behaviorism's reductionistic perspectives. He believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman is virtually the only behaviorist who found the Stimulus-Response theoryunacceptable, because reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur. He felt behavior was holistic, purposive, and cognitive. Tolman's views can be summarized by saying that behavior is not a response to a stimulus but is cognitive coping with a pattern of stimuli.
In his Sign Gestalt Theory, he put forth the notion that there are three parts to learning which work together as a gestalt. These are the "significant" or goal of behavior, the "sign" or signal for action, and "means-end relations" which were internal processes and relationships. He believed learning is an accumulation of these sign gestalts, and that they are then configured into cognitive maps. Input about the environment, which is ongoing, also influences behavior in that it causes certain gestalts to be selected or not, in relation to the individuals purpose or goals, and other factors. In this sense, learning is unique to each individual. (see later discussions of schemas and constructivism).
Tolman coined the term "cognitive map", which was an internal perceptual representation of external environmental features and landmarks. He thought that individuals acquire large numbers of cues from the environment and build up expectancies about their permanence or changeable characteristics. By using this internal representation of a physical space they could get to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of environmental features. Short cuts and variable routes are possible with this model. Whereas behaviorists viewed training as a way to build up a certain set of sequenced responses, Tolman thought that training would lead to a tendency to go to a certain place. The subjects would learn where to go, not just how to go.
Tolman was a "centralist". He felt that learning was dominantly a function of the central nervous system, as opposed to "peripheralism", the view of behaviorism.
Tolman also worked on "Latent Learning", defined as learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear. The idea of latent learning was not original to Tolman, but he developed it further.
Tolman also introduced “intervening variables” into the nomenclature of learning psychology. (This was very influential to Hull, who adopted the concept and terminology). In Tolman's system there were three classes of variables.
1. Dependent (behaviors or responses being observed and measured)
2. Independent (2 types were Environmental and Individual variation)
3. Intervening – these are hypothetical constructs rather than physical parameters. They are definable and measurable but not observable. They have functional relationships with both independent and dependent variables. They are internal cognitive processes.
Expectancy Theory – In animal experiments Tolman and his associates trained subjects to learn a maze with a preferred food as a reward. They observed that if they switched to a less preferred reward, the rats displayed disgust. Tolman attributed this to acquisition of expectancies in response to the signs or stimuli of a particular situation. The problem was, he never defined expectancy even though it was a powerful element in his system.
Tolman identified at least six types of learning.
1. Learning by cathexes – connecting or associating basic drives with desired goals with the end result of developing preferences for certain types of food, drink, sex-objects, etc.
2. Equivalence beliefs – sub-goals leading to major ones acquire similar attractiveness as the end goals.
3. Field expectancies – Acquisitions of sets of gestalts (internal maps) enable the individual to route himself based on these internal maps.
4. Field cognition modes – learning is influenced by the ways that perceptions, memories, and inferences function.
5. Drive discrimination – learning to discriminate between competing or more refined drives
6. Motor patterns- learning and refinement of sensory – motor skills.
Tolman wanted to disprove Thorndike's Law of Effect and replace it with his own set of 3 laws.
1. Law of Motivation – learning is propelled by gaining final successes or avoiding final failures. It is these that give purpose to the learning activity.
2. Law of Emphasis – Learning consists of building up patterns and gestalts and then selecting or emphasizing particular responses which emerge that tend to favor getting to the ultimate final success. The organism emphasizes certain behaviors over others because they grant better pleasure or survival value.
3. Law of Disruption – violent stimuli either physical (such as electrical shock) or emotional coming in sequence with the right or wrong responses will tend to disrupt learning.
Summary
Tolman was similar to the behaviorists in his emphasis on objectivity and measurement. He differed in that he did not believe reinforcement was necessary for learning to occur. Problems with his work were that he poorly defined many terms that he used in his fundamental theories, and that is difficult to make predictions from an expectancy point of view because of lack of determining the nature and strength of expectations before hand and when or how expectations may change.
Learning Theory Bibliography
Tuesday, October 11, 2011
writing
OPTIONAL IN GENERAL:
wel,this the scoring and dependable part of mains.it needs to be ur strength u can rely upon.here i feel following things are important:
-step 1: clarity of basics and concepts.this needs to be very vital to also understand the meaning of question and its demand.
-step2: interlinking of various concepts and sub-division of syllabus.this helps in having integrative idea of the subject and reflects in answers becoming more holistic.
-step3: subjects jargon-some technical,optional selective words need to be used in answers.
-step4:value addition:this very impotant to score well.currents related analysis in answer can really help here.
MPORTANT POINTS:
need is-simple english-small sentences-preferrably one point of view and its analysis in one paragraph-interlinking various point of view as balanced view in end-try include max points from different angles and dimensions-conclusion optimistic and potraying hope.
-key words to keep in mind while writing answers-ANALYSIS,INTERLINKING,BALANCED VIEW.
-dont bluff in facts and analysis as examiner is experinced enough to make out..be genuine.
-one's own opinion can be included towards end.
-facts should not be forced into answers but should be inserted to strengthen a point of view.
-YOJANA and KURUKSHETRA gives rationale of govts policies and analysis from govts mouth and are dependable and economical study material.
-
-key words to keep in mind while writing answers-ANALYSIS,INTERLINKING,BALANCED VIEW.
-dont bluff in facts and analysis as examiner is experinced enough to make out..be genuine.
-one's own opinion can be included towards end.
-facts should not be forced into answers but should be inserted to strengthen a point of view.
-YOJANA and KURUKSHETRA gives rationale of govts policies and analysis from govts mouth and are dependable and economical study material.
-
STRATEGY IN EXAM/ANXIETY MANAGEMENT/WHICH QUESTION TO ANSWER WHEN:
-changing and unexpected pattern demands on the spot decisions in exam.first thing is to keep initial five minutes for reading question paper and stricking out ques u hav no idea at all. selecting the questions best prepared and write them first.at this moment one will be anxious,no doubt,but this is when u have to keep moving,without wasting time in repenting or seeing around.
-when i opened gs 1,i too had no idea of history questions and was sure that most others will also not know them,thus i planned to write it last.i started with polity which i knew well and this helped me gain momentum in paper without getting struck on the tough question.
-psycho also had tough unpredictable research based questions.i simply struck them off in my initial five minutes and attempted rest of questions which i had idea about. i mean that let not tough questions disturb u n shake ur confidence,simply ignore them and move on to one u know.
-another impotant aspect is to keep ur energies till second optional paper2.this paper also checks ones stamina.since,i had socio and psycho back to back,i was very worried about my energy levels in psycho paper2.i went home directly after socio 2,without discussing with anyone and took gods name and slept. next day morning i was fresh after sound night sleep.when i entered to write paper2 of psycho,my mind was focussed to write best answers and fight the tiredness which was accumulating. the reward was 182 in psycho paper2,highest among all my optional marks.
-when i opened gs 1,i too had no idea of history questions and was sure that most others will also not know them,thus i planned to write it last.i started with polity which i knew well and this helped me gain momentum in paper without getting struck on the tough question.
-psycho also had tough unpredictable research based questions.i simply struck them off in my initial five minutes and attempted rest of questions which i had idea about. i mean that let not tough questions disturb u n shake ur confidence,simply ignore them and move on to one u know.
-another impotant aspect is to keep ur energies till second optional paper2.this paper also checks ones stamina.since,i had socio and psycho back to back,i was very worried about my energy levels in psycho paper2.i went home directly after socio 2,without discussing with anyone and took gods name and slept. next day morning i was fresh after sound night sleep.when i entered to write paper2 of psycho,my mind was focussed to write best answers and fight the tiredness which was accumulating. the reward was 182 in psycho paper2,highest among all my optional marks.
TIME MANAGEMENT:
see, target is 180 marks in 3 hours,i.e. 180 marks in 180 minutes.so,one minute means one mark. this calculation comes handy when subtle changes happen in marking scheme as happened in paper2 gs last time.if new ques comes for 4 marks,u know that max time for it is 4 minutes only.
-with practice,try writing 30 marks ques in 25-30 minutes,15 marks in 12-15 minuts and 2 marker in one minute each.initally it seems tough but later it becomes a habit almost.
-i wrote 15 marks first,as they r scoring and mind is fresh in starting.after 1 hour i started with 2 markers ,all of them together(around 30 r there in gs paper each) in 30 minutes.i preferred pointwise writing in them with a bit analytical touch than stuffing bare facts.thereafter long ques with 30 minutes alloted to each.
-exam means managing three things- TIME ,WORDS AND MARKS.from marks i mean,if u are not scoring in a particular question,move on to another question in which u may score better,hence best utilising time.i had practice on upsc like answer booklet in test series and had a mental idea that 1 page of that means 120 words in my writing with my kind of spacing. start new answer from new page only.
-with practice,try writing 30 marks ques in 25-30 minutes,15 marks in 12-15 minuts and 2 marker in one minute each.initally it seems tough but later it becomes a habit almost.
-i wrote 15 marks first,as they r scoring and mind is fresh in starting.after 1 hour i started with 2 markers ,all of them together(around 30 r there in gs paper each) in 30 minutes.i preferred pointwise writing in them with a bit analytical touch than stuffing bare facts.thereafter long ques with 30 minutes alloted to each.
-exam means managing three things- TIME ,WORDS AND MARKS.from marks i mean,if u are not scoring in a particular question,move on to another question in which u may score better,hence best utilising time.i had practice on upsc like answer booklet in test series and had a mental idea that 1 page of that means 120 words in my writing with my kind of spacing. start new answer from new page only.
BREAK UP OF QUESTIONS/CONTENT:
most of my answer followed this psttern :-
20% answer having basics,very expected part of answer that almost everyone will be writing. the direct demand of question.eg. in optional,the basic thinkers n their arguments
20% value addition from notes,a bit more richer part.
20% multiple dimensions,egs n case studies.
20% from magzines,hindu n interlinking of gs n optional
20% can be something new,innovative and different that will not be found in other candidates paper.this something extra gives that 2-3 extra marks. a bit by bit addition of these marks,give u extra 20-50 marks,this makes all the difference while determining ur rank,service n cadre.
-this propotion may vary acc to demand of question,eg paper2 being applied may demand more interlinking,egs n case studies,indian n contemporary touch.
-all throughout the answer the FOCUS and FLOW should be maintained.by that i mean,the question has a particular focus,something specific that has been asked,that needs to be answered throughout the answer.infact,even while writing different dimensions,link it well to focus of question.
-by FLOW,it means different paragraphs should be in a flow ie:interlinked ,when someone reads the answer the different parts should not look disconnected.like an argument may follow with a fact to strengthen,then counter argument, then other dimensions being balanced towards end.
-personal views ,if included can be preferrably towards end;the conclusion should be optimistic n balanced.
20% answer having basics,very expected part of answer that almost everyone will be writing. the direct demand of question.eg. in optional,the basic thinkers n their arguments
20% value addition from notes,a bit more richer part.
20% multiple dimensions,egs n case studies.
20% from magzines,hindu n interlinking of gs n optional
20% can be something new,innovative and different that will not be found in other candidates paper.this something extra gives that 2-3 extra marks. a bit by bit addition of these marks,give u extra 20-50 marks,this makes all the difference while determining ur rank,service n cadre.
-this propotion may vary acc to demand of question,eg paper2 being applied may demand more interlinking,egs n case studies,indian n contemporary touch.
-all throughout the answer the FOCUS and FLOW should be maintained.by that i mean,the question has a particular focus,something specific that has been asked,that needs to be answered throughout the answer.infact,even while writing different dimensions,link it well to focus of question.
-by FLOW,it means different paragraphs should be in a flow ie:interlinked ,when someone reads the answer the different parts should not look disconnected.like an argument may follow with a fact to strengthen,then counter argument, then other dimensions being balanced towards end.
-personal views ,if included can be preferrably towards end;the conclusion should be optimistic n balanced.
ANSWER WRITING PRACTICE;
-the booklet is unruled with right and left side margins...right side margins we can write the question number n left margin is meant to b left empty by students..(this type of booklet is usually available in book stores before mains exam,so hav a look...if u want write a paper in these for practice...infact,testseries exam r usually conduced in similar booklets...) ..so we hav to manage the spacing on our own..
as for improving handwriting,try writing a bit bigger in size as examiner may b old with poor eyesight..proper spacing between words,lines n paragraphs..this may b troublesome in starting but soon becomes habit.try writing in straight lines...
u can use blue or black pens...can keep one for headings n other for writing answers(but time may b limited to use two pens)...so i preferred underlining mostly to highlight...u can use capital letters or double underlining for something very important in answer,but dont do it often...say,at max once in an answer u go for capitals or double underlining...
start new answer in new page only...as gives a neater look n also UPSC demands it that way as in ending we hav to fill an index(on front page) where against every question number we hav to mention the page in answer booklet...
pointwise answers should b avoided in gs ,essay or humanities based optionals....instead try putting points as one in one para n para starting with words like firstly,secondly,thirdly,lastly,also etc....in long questions,we may put points in a part of answer,but never whole answer should b in points....
the practice is important,the aim is to develop capacity high quality answer consistently in limited time,with limited words. also to decide which question to write first,then which n which last. another important focus has to b time management in exam,not to spend too much time on one question at the cost of another.
-answer writing is most useful when done in exam simulated situations ie with time limit n similar difficulty level of questions.
as for improving handwriting,try writing a bit bigger in size as examiner may b old with poor eyesight..proper spacing between words,lines n paragraphs..this may b troublesome in starting but soon becomes habit.try writing in straight lines...
u can use blue or black pens...can keep one for headings n other for writing answers(but time may b limited to use two pens)...so i preferred underlining mostly to highlight...u can use capital letters or double underlining for something very important in answer,but dont do it often...say,at max once in an answer u go for capitals or double underlining...
start new answer in new page only...as gives a neater look n also UPSC demands it that way as in ending we hav to fill an index(on front page) where against every question number we hav to mention the page in answer booklet...
pointwise answers should b avoided in gs ,essay or humanities based optionals....instead try putting points as one in one para n para starting with words like firstly,secondly,thirdly,lastly,also etc....in long questions,we may put points in a part of answer,but never whole answer should b in points....
the practice is important,the aim is to develop capacity high quality answer consistently in limited time,with limited words. also to decide which question to write first,then which n which last. another important focus has to b time management in exam,not to spend too much time on one question at the cost of another.
-answer writing is most useful when done in exam simulated situations ie with time limit n similar difficulty level of questions.
Q&A-Garima Mittal
A LONG ANSWER (PSYCHOLOGY):
(THIS IS THE ANSWER I WROTE IN MUKUL SIR'S CLASS TEST HELD DURING PSYCHO COACHING IN JUNE 2008.I SCORED 34 OUT OF 60.THIS HAD BASICS+CASE STUDIES+EXAMPLE +INNOVATION+LINK WITH SOCIOLOGY(feminism n social change)+INTERLINKING VARIOUS TOPICS IN PSYCHO TOPICS.AS MANY HAV ASKED TO POST THIS,I WITH HELP OF MY SISTER'S PERSONAL STAFF IN OFFICE COULD GET IT TYPED. YA,DO NOTICE SMALL PARAGRAPHS MY ANSWER IS BROKEN INTO,IT MAKES ONE POINT IN A PARA, AND SMALL PARA MAKES READING EASIER N COMFORTABLE FOR EXAM.)
Stereotype are the rigid categorization of people owing to overgeneralisation and their membership to a particular group.
the cognition miser behaviour of human being preempts to make these short-cuts to their understanding of behaviour of other people.
the examples of sterotype abound in the socio-psychological reality around us. one of the most obvious and universally prevalent ,atleast until few decades ago,was the gender sterotype,i.e. sterotyping the male and female gender.
The Indian society has been patriarchal for centuries and this has percolated in the psyche of the people.the sterotype of emotionally unstable ,submissive,docile,incapable of rational decision making,superstitious,gullible to easy influence etc. are the attributes attached to female gender while masculinity,confidence,assertiveness,capability of decision making,dominence has been attached to male.
these sterotype gender finds their similar role models eg: for indian female,the role model being sati,sita,parvati,which tries to incorporate the belief that female are meant to be docile and submissive.
These gender sterotypes leads to self full-filling prophecies-i.e. when the person behaves towards others in a manner which leads the other person to adjust her behaviour according to male's expectation,thus the assumption of the first person is provred right.Thus,when the society expects them to underperfom n they r told that ,they actually underperform and hence,the views are further consolidated.
Rao and Rao are of the opinion that these stereotypes are internalised by the children and later manifested in actions in their adult age.
Studies have shown that children also attribute particular occupations to particular gender eg:policeman to males and grow up to play these roles respectively.
Thus,Socialisation plays an important role in the formation of these stereotypes and these become crystallised and manifested in the behaviour.
The stereotypes also lead to glass-ceiling effect,where the treatment of discrimination against women leads to their inability to secure higher posts.
According to Sudhir Kakkar,the Indian females lack their own identity and their identity is described by their relationship with others.This is because of the stereotype of inferiority that they are not given equal status and freedom to establish the identity of their own.The tantrums thrown by female gender,at times,is the result of persistent dissonance present which explodes into intermittent tantrums.This leads to another stereotype formation of emotional stability and thus the inability to take decisions.
Discriminations abound in the socio-psychological sphere of Indian women especially the rural illiterate women.The cultural preference for the male child has lead to extreme actions as the demonstrations of prejudice towards the girl child as infanticide.
The sterotype of inferiority and less capability has led to sterotyping of occupations and discrimination during salary payment where females are given less wages.
though,indian constitution guarantees equal rights to both the genders but the discrimination persist in real social sphere. eg: the boy child is given priviledge to go to school,while the girl is asked to look after the home.this is a type of glass ceiling and self-full filling prophecise where the girl child is shown as inferior because she couldnot study and didn't have experiences of facing outside world n thus is inferior,further strengthening the sterotype.
FLOWCHART
Thus,Indian female is undergoing gender discrimination and identity crisis.
with the wave of Feminism and modern education as more females are becoming educated and showing their acumen ,the gender sterotypa are slowly ameiorating,atleast in the urban sphere.with the advent of mass media ,Television and Internet ,the increase in the easy access of pornographic material and the commodification of women leads to development of the objectified beauty consciousness in females(Mc kinley).thus,the modern ways of communication are also reinforcing the sterotypes.
the television serials usually demonstrate the gender sterotype in their presentations and thus further reinforce them eg:the ideal daughter-in-law is shown to have sacrifice her career,dreams and freedom for her husband and family.thus the discrimination persists n gets stronger.
the increase involvement of women in the workforce of the country,has led to emergence of gender specific problems like sexual harrasement and child rearing difficulties.which can be countered by the gender friendly policies,male senstivity programmes,seeding,etc.
The values have to be changed,the complete renewal of society has to be undertaken to improve the deep rooted discrimination.The only solution lies in changing the child rearing practices and socialisation by giving democratic and equal treatment to male n female child at home, co-education at school and fostering mutual interdependence among them.Thus,facilitating increased inter group contact and thus slowly weakening of stereotypes n further,then,reduction in discrimination.
SHORT NOTE :
Question:Examine the statement- Gestalt psychology and behaviourism as two contrasting traditions in contemporary psychology
Answer:Psychology has evolved out of a subjective and speculative discipline of philosophy,In its pursuit of objectivity & becoming a pure science,it started with behaviouristic tradition.
But its limitation has led to emergence of Gestaltic & hence cognitive psychology.
The two traditions explain the reality in opposing ways:-
Firstly, Behaviourist look at human behaviour as more reflexive whereas Gestalts emphasizes on perceptive way of learning.
DIAGRAM
Secondly Behaviourist emphasizes on S-R approach whereas Gestalts emphasise on S-O-R approach.
Also,no importance to cognitive information processing by behaviourist.Infact behaviourist has the emphasis on the reflexes and instincts-animal-like behaviour.On the other hand,Gestalt,\s approach is based on the working of human brain.
The limitation of the Behaviourist, led to the cognitive psychology development and the development of Gestalts led to the growth of cognitive psychology.
Though both are opposing but can be complementary to explain the features in learning especially ;where conditioning plays an important role and Gestalts add an important dimension in it too.
Thus though they are different and have contrasting points of views,still both enrich psychology equally.
Answer:Psychology has evolved out of a subjective and speculative discipline of philosophy,In its pursuit of objectivity & becoming a pure science,it started with behaviouristic tradition.
But its limitation has led to emergence of Gestaltic & hence cognitive psychology.
The two traditions explain the reality in opposing ways:-
Firstly, Behaviourist look at human behaviour as more reflexive whereas Gestalts emphasizes on perceptive way of learning.
DIAGRAM
Secondly Behaviourist emphasizes on S-R approach whereas Gestalts emphasise on S-O-R approach.
Also,no importance to cognitive information processing by behaviourist.Infact behaviourist has the emphasis on the reflexes and instincts-animal-like behaviour.On the other hand,Gestalt,\s approach is based on the working of human brain.
The limitation of the Behaviourist, led to the cognitive psychology development and the development of Gestalts led to the growth of cognitive psychology.
Though both are opposing but can be complementary to explain the features in learning especially ;where conditioning plays an important role and Gestalts add an important dimension in it too.
Thus though they are different and have contrasting points of views,still both enrich psychology equally.
SOCIOLOGY LONG ANSWER:
Pluralism is basically defined as the existence of multi-lingual,multi-religious and multi -ethnic groups peacefully in the society.
it has been possible,due to mutual respect and acceptance of groups towards different communities.In such a society the religious,ethnic or lingual identity is not exploited for the political,economic or social gains.thus,this identity does not form the central focus of any group's self identity.
Montesque had studied pluralism and explained it as peaceful existence of various groups of different identities in a society.
sociologists have tried to explain the emergence of pluralism as a consequence of history as :-
1)Emergence of Modern state-was due to territorial invasion of various communities and emergence of the new state led to recognition of presence of identity of different communities.
2) colonialism-led to the increased contact between the people of different religious faith,identities and cultures to come closer.
3)wars-had enevitably led to mixing of different communities and the acceptance of their way of life to ensure the territorial integrity of newly acquired area to the conquerer's nation.
In the indian context, the pluralism had been seen as being present from ancient times. the Composite culture of the society,with mutual respect and liking for other's customs,festivals and ways of life fostered the feeling of pluralism.
sociologist have also tried to place pluralism as an evolutionary stage in the growth of the society.the initial one-religion state slowly evolved into multi-religious state which in course of time which in course of time with the development of toleration and respect for each other grow into plural societies.
The contemporary Indian society from this view point,can only be placed in the multi-religious category as the regular incidences of communal tension,riots have marred the development of plural character in recent times.
The controversy over Burqua,the Sikh turban or Bangle in the west european countries have also made one question `their plural character. The sociologists are of the opinion that this plural character is developed as a result of scientific,logical and rational nature of modernity.At best, it can be stated that plural character in these societies is also in evolution,despite well established modernity.
Undoubtedly,the last few decades have seen the growth of fundamentalism resulting in the terrorist attacks and formation of organisations to this effect. it is the reflection of growing intolerance in the individuals in the name of religion.
also, the religious revitalisation and revivalism has been on rise.The reasons for its emergence has been evaluated by many scholars as it was seen as an unexpected phenomenon.Most of the positivist and evolutionary theorist had predicted the demise of the institution of religion with the growth of science and technology,but in reality, the reversal is being witnessed.
Few causes have been postulated-Malcom Turf had emphasised on the following causes :-
1) Trans-border Nationalism-the religious community today is not confined to only one nation,rather is diffused over multiple nations. Thus in case of any crisis involving community members,the transborder nationalism is witnessed. EG: the plight of indian muslims discussed by various muslim countries leaders, the problems of Tamils in Sri lanka has become a national issue in India,though it could have been considered as the internal matter of Sri lanka.
2)Failure of capitalism- capitalism promised prosperity and happiness for all and having failed in the delivery of the same,has caused the vaccum where the individuals are searching happiness in religion.
3) Decline of the West-excessive materialism has made the yputh search for the means to assert their identity and search for values. in this,the ethnic and religious identities are glorified.
Since,the above mentioned causes have been prevalent in our contemporary societies on a large scale, thus the religious revitalism has become the reality.
This revivalism,results in excessive assertion of one's exclusive identity and potrayal of other community's interest as antagonistic to other communities,thus breeding intolerance.this will,in turn,affect the plural fabric of the society with increasing distrust and decreased respect.
The formation of political parties on the basis of religion,ethnic,linguistic identities is also corroding the plural fabric.Recently,comments by few politicians that north indians are responsible for the slow development of maharashtra,clearly demonstrates how the ethnic identities can be exploited to get political mileage.
Another aspect of growing tendency of revivalism has been Saffronisation ,which even was manifested in the trial to alter the syllabus of N.C.E.R.T books. such moves,will breed insecurity in the minorties and further deteorating the situation.
The inclusive development of all communities,emphasis of mutual co-existence and respect will only help in peaceful presence of various linguistic,ethnic or religious communities in a single society. with the multi-cultural nature of indian society, pluralism as a tool to tackle growing religious fundamentalism and revivalism is a necessity.
(I SCORED 58% IN THIS ANSWER IN MOHOPATRA SIR'S TEST SERIES.THERE HAS BEEN SOCIOLOGICAL INFORMATION SPECIFIC TO TOPIC AND ALSO CONTEMPORARY EGS TO STRENGTHEN ARGUMENTS. THE ANALYSIS,ARGUMENT,COUNTER-ARGUMENT AND BALANCE TOWARDS END IS EMPHASISED IN THIS ANSWER.)
it has been possible,due to mutual respect and acceptance of groups towards different communities.In such a society the religious,ethnic or lingual identity is not exploited for the political,economic or social gains.thus,this identity does not form the central focus of any group's self identity.
Montesque had studied pluralism and explained it as peaceful existence of various groups of different identities in a society.
sociologists have tried to explain the emergence of pluralism as a consequence of history as :-
1)Emergence of Modern state-was due to territorial invasion of various communities and emergence of the new state led to recognition of presence of identity of different communities.
2) colonialism-led to the increased contact between the people of different religious faith,identities and cultures to come closer.
3)wars-had enevitably led to mixing of different communities and the acceptance of their way of life to ensure the territorial integrity of newly acquired area to the conquerer's nation.
In the indian context, the pluralism had been seen as being present from ancient times. the Composite culture of the society,with mutual respect and liking for other's customs,festivals and ways of life fostered the feeling of pluralism.
sociologist have also tried to place pluralism as an evolutionary stage in the growth of the society.the initial one-religion state slowly evolved into multi-religious state which in course of time which in course of time with the development of toleration and respect for each other grow into plural societies.
The contemporary Indian society from this view point,can only be placed in the multi-religious category as the regular incidences of communal tension,riots have marred the development of plural character in recent times.
The controversy over Burqua,the Sikh turban or Bangle in the west european countries have also made one question `their plural character. The sociologists are of the opinion that this plural character is developed as a result of scientific,logical and rational nature of modernity.At best, it can be stated that plural character in these societies is also in evolution,despite well established modernity.
Undoubtedly,the last few decades have seen the growth of fundamentalism resulting in the terrorist attacks and formation of organisations to this effect. it is the reflection of growing intolerance in the individuals in the name of religion.
also, the religious revitalisation and revivalism has been on rise.The reasons for its emergence has been evaluated by many scholars as it was seen as an unexpected phenomenon.Most of the positivist and evolutionary theorist had predicted the demise of the institution of religion with the growth of science and technology,but in reality, the reversal is being witnessed.
Few causes have been postulated-Malcom Turf had emphasised on the following causes :-
1) Trans-border Nationalism-the religious community today is not confined to only one nation,rather is diffused over multiple nations. Thus in case of any crisis involving community members,the transborder nationalism is witnessed. EG: the plight of indian muslims discussed by various muslim countries leaders, the problems of Tamils in Sri lanka has become a national issue in India,though it could have been considered as the internal matter of Sri lanka.
2)Failure of capitalism- capitalism promised prosperity and happiness for all and having failed in the delivery of the same,has caused the vaccum where the individuals are searching happiness in religion.
3) Decline of the West-excessive materialism has made the yputh search for the means to assert their identity and search for values. in this,the ethnic and religious identities are glorified.
Since,the above mentioned causes have been prevalent in our contemporary societies on a large scale, thus the religious revitalism has become the reality.
This revivalism,results in excessive assertion of one's exclusive identity and potrayal of other community's interest as antagonistic to other communities,thus breeding intolerance.this will,in turn,affect the plural fabric of the society with increasing distrust and decreased respect.
The formation of political parties on the basis of religion,ethnic,linguistic identities is also corroding the plural fabric.Recently,comments by few politicians that north indians are responsible for the slow development of maharashtra,clearly demonstrates how the ethnic identities can be exploited to get political mileage.
Another aspect of growing tendency of revivalism has been Saffronisation ,which even was manifested in the trial to alter the syllabus of N.C.E.R.T books. such moves,will breed insecurity in the minorties and further deteorating the situation.
The inclusive development of all communities,emphasis of mutual co-existence and respect will only help in peaceful presence of various linguistic,ethnic or religious communities in a single society. with the multi-cultural nature of indian society, pluralism as a tool to tackle growing religious fundamentalism and revivalism is a necessity.
(I SCORED 58% IN THIS ANSWER IN MOHOPATRA SIR'S TEST SERIES.THERE HAS BEEN SOCIOLOGICAL INFORMATION SPECIFIC TO TOPIC AND ALSO CONTEMPORARY EGS TO STRENGTHEN ARGUMENTS. THE ANALYSIS,ARGUMENT,COUNTER-ARGUMENT AND BALANCE TOWARDS END IS EMPHASISED IN THIS ANSWER.)
writing
-i read mukul sir's notes,added from his bundles esp egs and case studies,latest psycho news from hindu(comes on op-ed or next 3-4 pages),interlinking with gs,currents and sociology,self innovation and analysis(writing these things in psycho paper needs to look at these things with psychologist perspective and use of psychological terms in explanation).
-i didnt read baron or morgan for want of time,instead tried to have concepts clear from class notes and discussion with mukul sir( wel,though have heard these books r good for basics, and one of them is in well organised format-i wil check my notes n update this)
-my strategy was to have 20% answer of psycho with basics-thinkers,schools,specific experiments(which almost everyone will include),20% from bundles or psychological material,20% link from gs,socio material,currents,20% innovation(eg-maitri express helps in increasing people to people contact),rest 20% for intro and conclusion. this was just a referral point since i changed this acc to needs and requirement of question
-diagrams help score in this optional,minimum of 2 diagrams in each question.
-i didnt read baron or morgan for want of time,instead tried to have concepts clear from class notes and discussion with mukul sir( wel,though have heard these books r good for basics, and one of them is in well organised format-i wil check my notes n update this)
-my strategy was to have 20% answer of psycho with basics-thinkers,schools,specific experiments(which almost everyone will include),20% from bundles or psychological material,20% link from gs,socio material,currents,20% innovation(eg-maitri express helps in increasing people to people contact),rest 20% for intro and conclusion. this was just a referral point since i changed this acc to needs and requirement of question
-diagrams help score in this optional,minimum of 2 diagrams in each question.
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