writing

Write one section or paragraph at a time, starting with the most familiar or interesting material.

Guidelines for Developing Outlines

1.     Identify main points

o    Carefully examine the reference notes and identify the main ideas or main topics.

o    The main ideas will form the skeleton of the outline.

o    Each main idea will be the subject of one paragraph (or more) in the rough draft.

2.     Identify supporting details

o    Determine which facts, statistics, opinions, quotes, and explanations support each main idea.

o    Arrange them under the corresponding main ideas in the outline.

o    Gathering supporting details for a topic from more than one reference usually impresses instructors.

o    Each supporting detail will be a sentence (or several sentences) in the rough draft.

3.     Keep it brief

o    Outline information should be written in short phrases and incomplete sentences.

o    Focus on key words and key ideas.

o    Spend more time on getting the information organized logically than writing complete sentences.

4.     Logically order the ideas

o    Organize the information logically, using one of the following approaches: chronological, sequential, topical, problem-solution, or cause-effect.

o    These styles are described elsewhere in this page under Structure and Organization.

The chapters, sections, and/or paragraphs of the text should be organized in a logical manner. There are several organizational options (Kesselman-Turkel and Peterson, 1981, p. 103):

• Chronological
  
  • order of historical events
  • cause to effect
  • step-by-step sequence
• From general to specific
  
  • general topic to subtopics
  • theoretical to practical
  • generalizations to specific examples
• From least to most
  
  • easiest to most difficult
  • smallest to largest
  • worst to best
  • weakest to strongest
  • least important to most important
  • least complicated to most complicated
  • least effective to most effective
  • least controversial to most controversial
• From most to least
  
  • most known to least known
  • most factual to least factual (fact to opinion)
• Giving both sides (grouped or interspersed)
  
  • pros and cons
  • assets and liabilities
  • similarities and differences
  • hard and easy
  • bad and good
  • effective and ineffective
  • weak and strong
  • complicated and uncomplicated
  • controversial and uncontroversial

1. Choose a suitable organizational design and stick to it throughout the paper or essay.
2. The unit of composition should be the paragraph.
3. Use the active voice when writing.
4. Put statements in a positive form rather than a negative form.
5. Use definite, specific, and concrete language rather than abstract and ambiguous language.
6. Omit needless words to keep the writing concise.
7. Avoid strings of loose sentences.
8. Express co-ordinate ideas in a similar form.
9. Keep related words and ideas together.
10. Write summaries in one tense.
11. Emphatic words should be placed at the end of sentences.
12. Write naturally.
13. Work from a suitable structure or design.
14. Emphasize nouns and verbs when writing.
15. Revise and rewrite the paper.
16. Don't overwrite.
17. Don't overexplain.
18. Don't overstate one's points.
19. Avoid the use of qualifiers whenever possible.
20. Don't affect in a breezy manner.
21. Use conventional spellings.
22. Don't construct awkward adverbs.
23. Be sure the reader knows who is speaking.
24. Don't use fancy words.
25. Don't use dialect unless one's ear is good.
26. Write clearly.
27. Don't inject opinion unless so instructed.
28. Use cliches and figures of speech sparingly.
29. Don't take shortcuts if clarity is affected.
30. Avoid using foreign languages.
31. Prefer the standard to the unconventional.
32. Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence.
33. End each paragraph with a transition sentence.

Transitional Words & Phrases

Using transitional words and phrases
helps papers read more smoothly, and at the same time allows the reader to flow more smoothly from one point to the next.

Transitions enhance logical organization and understandability
and improve the connections between thoughts. They indicate relations,
whether within a sentence, paragraph, or paper.

This list illustrates categories of "relationships" between ideas,followed by words and phrases that can make the connections:

Addition:
also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly

When there is a trusting relationship coupled with positive reinforcement, the partners will be able to overcome difficult situations.

Consequence:
accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose,
hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore

Highway traffic came to a stop as a result of an accident that morning.

Contrast and Comparison:
contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise,
on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather,
similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast

The children were very happy. On the other hand, and perhaps more importantly, their parents were very proactive in providing good care.

Direction:
here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above,
to the left, to the right, in the distance

She scanned the horizon for any sign though in the distance she could not see the surprise coming her way.

Diversion:
by the way, incidentally

He stumbled upon the nesting pair incidentally found only on this hill.

Emphasisabove all, chiefly, with attention to, especially, particularly, singularly

The Quakers gathered each month with attention to deciding the business of their Meeting.

Exception:
aside from, barring, beside, except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of, save

Consensus was arrived at by all of the members exclusive of those who could not vote.

Exemplifying:chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly, namely,
particularly, including, specifically, such as

Some friends and I drove up the beautiful coast chiefly to avoid the heat island of the city.

Generalizing:
as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually

There were a few very talented artists in the class, but for the most part the students only wanted to avoid the alternative course.

Illustration:
for example, for instance, for one thing, as an illustration,
illustrated with, as an example, in this case

The chapter provided complex sequences and examples illustrated with a very simple schematic diagram.

Similarity:
comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similar, moreover, together with

The research was presented in a very dry style though was coupled with examples that made the audience tear up.

Restatement:
in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently

In their advertising business, saying things directly was not the rule. That is to say, they tried to convey the message subtly though with creativity.

Sequence:
at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time,
for now, for the time being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on,
meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier,
simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind,

The music had a very retro sound but at the same time incorporated a complex modern rhythm.

Summarizing:
after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event,
in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis,
in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally

She didn't seem willing to sell the car this week, but in any case I don't get paid until the end of the month.